The skin produced in vitro is,in fact , only the epidermis portion of skin; when the epidermis applied to the burnt area , it leads to the regeneration of dermis (the remaining part of skin) underneath.but improvement in the techniques have permitted the reconstitution of vvirtually complete skin(both epidermis and dermis) , called living skin equivalent(LSE); this technology emloys a collagen matrix as a support for groth of tissue .the skin explants used for obtaining artificial skinmay be either obtained from the patient concerned or from the foreskin (loose skin from the tip of penis) of newborn babies. Skin cells of new-borns grow without scars.Artificial skin from newborn skin explants is used to cover the wound till the patient's skin is cultured and artificial skin obtained for grafting.
the production of artificial skin , in simple term is as follows and is essentially cell or not organ culture . The bulk (Ca 90%) of epidermis is constituted by cells called keratinocytes , which produce the dead cells (corneocytes) making up the outer most cornfied layers of skin. The keratinocytes are dissociated by treating the skin explant with trypsin . These cells are cultured in vessels the bottom of which is coverd with irradiated 3T3 fibroblast cell lines;this is because certain products from fibroblast cells facillitate the proliferation of keratinocytes . Keratinocytes grow tofrom colonies ,which are again disociated into single cells and cultured in the same manner. The process is repeted ill a confluent sheet of pure epithilium is formed ;this sheet is detached from the culture vessels, cleaned and used for grafting. The explant for preparing artificial skin for the graft must come from the patient himself to avoid rejection. A 3cm2 skin explant can yield about 1.7 m2 artificial skin in 3-4 weeks representing a 5000-fold increase. In about 5 years after grafting of he artificial skin , all the essential components of skin are regenrated . Artificial skin grafts have been used to succesfully types of skin repair several types of skin defects including chronic skin ulcers.

Antibiotics Kill Your Body's Good Bacteria, Too, Leading to
Serious Health Risks
Dr. Mercola's Comment:
The information that follows is a two-part article taken directly from Doug Kaufmann and Dave
Holland, MD's new book, “The Fungus Link, Volume 2.” Inside this follow-up to the Fungus Link,
published in 2000, you'll not only learn about the dangers of antibiotics. You'll also learn about the
ins and outs of natural and prescriptive antifungals. Additionally, Doug and Dave share with you the
role fungi and their mycotoxins play in what are unfortunately everyday diseases such as prostatitis,
ear-nose-throat disorders, weight problems (including obesity and anorexia), autoimmune diseases,
hormonal disorders, neurologic diseases, hair loss, and eye problems.
To preorder this or any of Doug Kaufmann's books, you can call Doug's office at 972-772-0990, M-F
8:00 AM to 5:00 PM Central.
You can also get books in person and learn about the role of fungi and mycotoxins in cancer and
diabetes as Doug and Dave talk with you live at their next interactive seminar in Ft. Worth, TX, June
28th at Pantego Bible Church, 8001 Anderson Blvd. Ft. Worth, TX 76120. Click here for directions.
You can register for the seminar by also calling the office or visiting the website.
by Doug Kaufmann
“It is ironic that this humbled fungus, hailed as a benefactor of mankind, may by its very success prove to
be a deciding factor in the decline of the present civilization.”
— Dr. John I. Pitt, The Genus Penicillum, Academic Press, 1979
Simply put, antibiotics are poisons that are used to kill. Only licensed physicians can prescribe them. The
drugs are used to kill bacteria. Certainly, many people have benefited from using them. However, if bacteria
were the only organisms that antibiotics killed, much of this book would be unnecessary. In fact, I contend
that poisons that kill small organisms in small doses — organism-specific varieties notwithstanding — can
also kill big organisms, when they are taken in big doses. You, my friend, are a big organism.
We’ve talked about the link between fungus and human disease. This chapter addresses the possibility that
antibiotics may help fungi to proliferate within the human body.
As an adult human, you have three to four pounds of beneficial bacteria and yeast living within your
intestines. These microbes compete for nutrients from the food you eat. Usually, the strength in numbers
beneficial bacteria enjoy both keeps the ever-present yeasts in check and causes them to produce nutrients
such as the B vitamins.
However, every time you swallow antibiotics, you kill the beneficial bacteria within your intestines. When
you do so, you upset the delicate balance of your intestinal terrain. Yeasts grow unchecked into large
colonies and take over, in a condition called dysbiosis.
Yeasts are opportunistic organisms. This means that, as the intestinal bacteria die, yeasts thrive, especially
when their dietary needs are met. They can use their tendrils, or hyphae, to literally poke holes through the
lining of your intestinal wall. This results in a syndrome called leaky gut. Yeasts are not the only possible
cause of this syndrome. Some scientists have linked non-steroidal, anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS) such
as naproxen and ibuprofen to the problem. Given their ability to alter intestinal terrain, antibiotics also likely
contribute to leaky gut syndrome.
In addition to possibly causing leaky gut syndrome, I believe that parasitic yeasts can also cause you to
change what you eat in that they encourage you to binge on carbohydrates including pasta, bread, sugar,
potatoes, etc. So, it should come as no surprise that weight gain counts as one of the telltale signs of
antibiotic damage and subsequent yeast overgrowth.
By altering the normal terrain of the intestines, antibiotics can also make food allergies more likely. An
array of intestinal disorders can ensue, as well. Sadly, most doctors claim ignorance concerning their
patients’ intestinal disorders rather than admit that the drugs they themselves prescribed actually caused the
disorders to begin with.
Tons of antibiotics are fed to American livestock on a daily basis, purportedly to proof them against
bacteria. This practice not only possibly contributes to antibiotic resistance in humans — many experts feel
weight gain, and not disease prevention, is the real reason antibiotics are so widely used. Fat cattle sell for
more than thin cattle. That’s all very well, but imagine what the antibiotics thereby possibly present in dairy
products could be doing to our children’s health.
Back in the 1950s, two researchers in Albany, New York, worked to develop an antimicrobial drug from a
substance produced by a soil-based fungus. Although the nystatin they discovered is technically a
mycotoxin, it works wonders as an intestinal antifungal. This as yet revolutionary drug stops the yeast
overgrowth caused by all other antibiotics and is 100 percent safe to use. In addition, nystatin works with no
side effects, though it can cause a pseudo sickness that patients often confuse with side effects.
Also in the 1950s, scientists used mice to grade the relative toxicity of 340 antibiotics (Dr. William S.
Spector, The Handbook of Toxicity, 1957). The researchers based their rankings on the amount of a given
antibiotic required to kill half of the lab mice injected with it. I relate this story only to ask you, before 1957,
how did scientists decide what would serve as prescriptive doses for these very same antibiotics when used
in humans?
I’ll assume that the same toxicity scale remains in place today. If it does, and if a given dose of penicillin
will kill 50 percent of mice injected, it stands to reason that a much larger dose, or perhaps repetitive doses
extended over 40 years, might prove fatal to a human. I don’t know if larger doses are in fact administered
to people. And, the 40-year scenario has its problems. But you have to admit, it’s certainly food for thought.
The time span between when patients take rounds of antibiotics and when they die interests me. That’s
because I believe that few people really die of heart disease and diabetes. In actuality, antibiotics are
responsible for deaths attributed to these diseases, because these drugs are what caused people to develop
the diseases to begin with. And yet, incredibly, death certificates usually state the probable cause of death
without mentioning whether the deceased had a history of taking antibiotics.
Remember, antibiotics are dangerous mycotoxins — fungal metabolites. Just as importantly, medical
experts have written articles maintaining that these drugs kill people. But, other experts insist on remaining
sceptical as to the problem, even though these same experts readily recognize the link between weakened
immune systems and death.
According to the 2001 Allergy and Asthma Report, the first immunodeficiency syndrome was identified in
1952. This document tells us that since that time, “more than 95 immune syndromes have been identified,
with new conditions coming to light every day.” The report goes on to say that research indicates that
“increased antibiotic use in human infancy may be associated with increased risk of developing allergies.”
Max Planck won the 1918 Nobel Prize in Physics. He once weighed in as to why science is slow to change
even in the presence of overwhelming evidence that it should do so.
“A new scientific truth does not triumph by convincing its opponents and making them see the light,”
Planck said, “but rather because its opponents eventually die and a new generation grows up that is familiar
with the ideas from the beginning.”
That a new generation will grow up knowing of the dangers inherent in taking antibiotics is a good thing.
That doctors will continue randomly prescribing fungal toxins should teach us the importance of knowing
medical facts before blindly accepting any prescription. Please study the antimicrobial benefits and the
immune system stimulants that nature provides. Know also that, in some instances, antibiotics may become
necessary.
If you reach the point where no alternatives exist, I recommend that you ask your doctor to prescribe
nystatin simultaneously with the antibiotic (see Dr. Holland’s article). Also, keep in mind the post-antibiotic
importance of restoring the intestinal terrain with plain yogurt and probiotics. If you experience bloating,
belching, gas, constipation, diarrhea, GERD, or other intestinal problems, probiotics can play an important
role in restoring your intestinal terrain.
Antibiotics — to Take or Not to Take?
by David A. Holland, M.D.
I looked up antibiotics in Harrison’s Textbook of Internal Medicine. The listing referred me to
“antimicrobials.” This caused me to realize how much more accurately the second term describes these
substances, given the broad-spectrum nature of a lot of them.
I must confess that, as a doctor, I do prescribe “antimicrobials.” Perhaps I prescribe more antifungals and
nonprescription remedies than the usual doctor, but I do prescribe antibiotics, as well. Perhaps even more
horrifying, considering Doug’s articles condemning them, is that I’ve taken them myself! In fact, in these
times it’s a rare individual who goes through life without ingesting those little pills. So, three questions have
become important — when should you take antibiotics, when should you refrain, and what will you do
when you’ve already taken them?
Alexander Fleming, by the grace of God, brought us a mixed blessing in 1928 with his accidental discovery
of penicillin produced by, of all things, a fungus. Medicine’s interest treating people for exposure to fungi
dropped dramatically in succeeding years, until the microbes were only thought important insofar as their
ability to produce increasingly diverse varieties of antibiotics.
Interest in fighting bacteria proliferated like a flesh-eating Strep infection, fueling the race to discover ever
more antibiotics. Pharmaceutical salespeople invaded doctors’ offices and hospitals, intent on convincing
physicians their antibiotic was better than the others. These salespeople supported their pitches with studies,
graphs, charts and convincing stats, while often failing to mention that their research had been funded by
their own companies. The possible conflict of interest was, and remains, enormous.
I have no quarrel with such salespeople. They’re regular men and women like you and me, just trying to
make a living. However, when human lives are involved, funding research to prove that your own product is
better than the competition’s is just plain wrong. The advantage is obvious, and the danger that a great deal
of objectivity could be lost is only all too real.
I believe that an impartial, third party should be assigned to perform such research, funded by a mandatory
“ante” from all pharmaceutical companies involved in producing a given category of drug. Of course, that
will be the day! In case the above scenario never happens, we would do well to take with several grains of
salt the unregulated information that companies provide about their own products.
Perhaps you are wondering about the use — and abuse — of antibiotics in general. Let me give you an
example. One of the most common diagnoses given at a doctor’s office is the upper respiratory infection
(URI). It accounts for up to 70 percent of all antibiotics dispensed (Annals of Internal Medicine. American
College of Physicians. American Society of Internal Medicine. March 20, 2001).
However, according to Dr. Carol Kauffman, most URIs are not caused by the bacteria that antibiotics are
designed to fight. Rather, Kauffman says, they are caused by fungi. So, unless a secondary, bacterial
infection presents itself — and even then, the rules change — most URIs do not require the use of
antibiotics.
Regarding ear infections, in one study, children administered antibiotics for acute otitis media suffered
double the rate of adverse effects compared to children in the study who took placebos (Clinical Evidence.
2000). The difference in outcome for those children in the study who took antibiotics compared to those
who do not was almost negligible. Some scientists counter that children who take antibiotics run lower risks
of secondary ear infections such as meningitis or mastoiditis (infection of the angular bone located behind
your ear).
Of course, the landscape is complicated by noncompliance. The portion of people who take their antibiotics
as prescribed has been estimated at anywhere between 8 to 68 percent. So it’s difficult to say just how
effective antibiotics actually are.
Now, say my daughter were to get sick for 10 days, miserable with a high fever and screaming ear pain. Say
our doctor said her ear canal checked out as angry red. Am I going to have my daughter take the
prescription? Probably so. We cared for a young woman at the hospital where I worked who was literally at
her death bed with overwhelming Streptococcal — bacterial — pneumonia. One of her lungs was saturated
with the infection, which had also spread throughout her bloodstream.
I went on to my next rotation thinking that was the last I would hear of that patient. However, I later spoke
with her attending physician. He told me she walked out of that hospital, completely cured. So, antibiotics
save lives, but it’s not exactly a common occurrence. Certainly, most of you out there suffering from the
common cold are not near death, so you should think twice about taking antibiotics.
The non-synthetic antibiotics are fungal by-products called mycotoxins. Penicillin is perhaps the best
example. In other words, mycotoxins kill off fungi’s competitors, allowing fungi to grab up all of the
nutrients for themselves. Alexander Fleming himself observed this in action, and it later led him to develop
penicillin. When a mold — molds are fungi — contaminated a bacteria colony upon which Fleming was
performing an experiment, the invader cleared the area around it of all bacteria. When Fleming investigated,
It turned out that the fungus had produced a substance he would later call penicillin, killing the bacteria in
residence.
Just because they kill bacteria, you may be thinking, doesn’t mean that some, many or especially all of the
mycotoxins used as antibiotics are necessarily harmful to human beings. A. V. Costantini in effect counters
this idea when he speaks of the work of two scientists by the name of Bernstein and Ross. Costantini says
that the men found that two or more months of treatment with penicillin and other antibiotics contributed to
what they saw as a “significantly increased risk of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma in humans (Costantini, A. V.
Fungalbionics. 1998).”
How many people, children included, have undergone dose after dose of antibiotics for recurring infections?
Doug and I believe that these relatively small doses taken over long periods of time are actually harming us
in similar, incremental fashion, later showing up as cancer, diabetes, vasculitis or other diseases.
We take antibiotics when we are sick, when our immune systems weaken. The mycotoxins pharmacies
dispense for use as antibiotics only exacerbate the problem, because the lion’s share of these substances
have been shown to be immunosuppressants (CAST Report No. 116. November 1989.). Not only are they
capable of hamstringing our immune systems, they also destroy the friendly bacteria that guard our
intestines.
These friendly bacteria include Lactobacillus acidophilus, Bifidus and Bulgaricus, supplements for which
can be found in any health food store’s refrigerated section. They protect us against pathogens such as
Salmonella, yeast, cholera, and the bad E. coli. They are so potent that, prior a trip abroad, to protect
yourself from traveler’s diarrhea you’d do better to skip the usual antibiotics and instead take acidophilus
supplements.
Unfortunately, these good flora are so vulnerable to antibiotics that, in mice, a “single injection of
streptomycin can eradicate the protective effect of the normal flora. (Mandell. Principles and Practice of
Infectious Diseases. 2000.)” And, once gone, these friendly bacteria are replaced by hostile bacteria such as
Pseudomonas, Clostridium, and Klebsiella, and by Candida yeast, a powerful member of the fungi family.
So, we have the good and the bad regarding our chemical friends known as antibiotics. They can “save the
day” at times, but they have ruined them at others — just ask any woman with a yeast infection or look at
any baby who suffers from thrush. You should know that, even should you just say “no” when your doctor
moves to prescribe antibiotics for you, theoretically speaking you may still be taking them with every bite of
steak and pork you eat.
That’s because more antibiotics per pound are used on livestock than in human medicine. How much of
those antibiotics are passed on is difficult to determine, but the mere possibility of this kind of thing is
certainly a worry.
Our goal in this book is to educate you and to help you make informed decisions. Some final, simple tips
follow:
1. An ounce of prevention.... Exercise, eat intelligently and take a few supplements. Avoid alcohol,
smoking, and recreational drugs. Get some rest once in a while. Pray.
Despite our best efforts, most of us will get sick at some point and decide to go see a doctor. If you
are a stubborn, married man, your wife will likely make the appointment for you.
2. Ask Questions. If your doctor diagnoses you with an upper respiratory infection, sore throat (in
which the strep test is negative), bronchitis, sinusitis, or ear infection, and you wonder if you really
need an antibiotic, make a point of asking her about it. A lot of physicians would be pleasantly
surprised that one of their patients would even consider trying to recuperate without antibiotics. Ask
if you can treat your condition symptomatically and come back or call in a couple of days if you are
not better.
If your questions annoy your doctor, then get another doctor. After all, you pay the bills, either
directly or out of your paycheck in the form of insurance, and you deserve adequate treatment. On
the other hand, if you feel you, in fact, do need an antibiotic and your doctor disagrees, try to work a
deal in which she will prescribe an antibiotic for you if you don’t feel better in a couple of days. I
learned an important lesson about this kind of disagreement during college, on a visit to the
infirmary. The doctor there refused to give me an antibiotic for a URI I’d come down with. I had to
suppress my anger at what I saw as arrogance on his part, but lo and behold, he was right. I got better
without the pills I’d been sure I’d needed. I think a lot of people tend to underestimate their bodies’
healing abilities, in much the same way as I did. That’s just one reason why doctors are oftentimes in
a better position to make the call as to whether or not to prescribe.
3. Take an objective look at yourself and your life-style. If you keep coming down with the same thing,
do some research and a little thinking. Do you drink a lot of soda? Do you smoke? Are you taking
antibiotic after antibiotic and now have a secondary yeast or fungal infection? How is your spiritual
life? Your stress level? The point is, myriad factors contribute to “wellness.”
As far as chronic sinus infections go, Johns Hopkins researchers are now saying most such conditions are
caused by a fungus. So, if you do have chronic sinusitis, stop taking antibiotics, get on an antifungal diet,
and ask your doctor for antifungal medications. If your doctor refuses, visit a health food store for natural,
off-the-shelf antifungals such as olive leaf extract, garlic, and Caprylic acid.
Once you improve, make sure you go back and let your doctor know how things worked out. Chances are
she is neither experienced nor comfortable with prescribing antifungal medication. Your story may convince
her to do her own research, the first step to changing her treatment philosophy.
It shouldn’t be too difficult to convince your doctor to let you try a prescription of nystatin. As one of the
better gut antifungals, nystatin is also remarkably safe and free of side-effects.
If you’ve decided to go ahead and take an antibiotic:
1. Get the facts. Ask your doctor how many days you must take the antibiotic and if you, in fact, do
need the latest, most powerful one on the market. Simple urinary tract infections are now treated with
only three days of antibiotics. Sinus infections, bronchitis, and ear infections in children over two
years of age can be treated with as few as five days of antibiotics, new or old, generic or name brand.
This may not be possible, however, if you have other medical conditions or if you smoke.
2. Build trust. Commit to the full course of the antibiotic unless you experience significant side effects
or an allergic reaction. You sought medical advice and agreed to the prescription. You will build
trust with your doctor if you work as a team. This trust will be very important once you see number 3
below.
3. Take an antifungal with the antibiotic. For example, you could ask your doctor for a prescription of
nystatin to take during the course of your antibiotic. Many dermatologists do this when prescribing
long-term antibiotic courses for acne. I suggest adults take two tablets twice a day — 1 cc of
suspension twice a day for children — to prevent yeast overgrowth in your intestines. Most cases of
upset stomach or diarrhea that kick in a few days of beginning a round of antibiotics can be cured
with a single dose of the drug. Diarrhea after a two-week round of antibiotics is likely caused by a
different bug altogether — be sure to bring that to your doctor’s attention.
I should tell you that, in my clinical practice years, many of my patients made great strides against
acne through taking nystatin and a change in diet alone, without the antibiotics.
4. Supplement your intake. Take an antioxidant supplement, one which includes vitamin E, zinc,
selenium, vitamin C, and vitamin A, among others. According to A.V. Costantini, all antioxidants
are antifungal. (Costantini. 1998.)
5. Keep your bowels moving. If antibiotics kill off your friendly, intestinal bacteria, once you cease
taking antibiotics you’ll run a higher risk of infection by other, more hostile bacteria. These bacteria
will be quick to find and exploit pockets of debris that could be collecting and putrefying in your
intestines if you happen to become constipated. So, be sure to keep your digestive tract as clear as
possible until you can repopulate it with friendly bacteria. Psyllium hulls fiber from your local health
food store is the best, bulk fiber to use, as long as you don’t have a history of intestinal obstruction.
Psyllium not only relieves constipation. It also slows diarrhea by absorbing excess water.
6. Replace the good bacteria in your intestines. Supplement with an acidophilus supplement for a few
weeks following any course of antibiotics. Do not take these simultaneously with your antibiotic, or
you will simply end up with a lot of very dead, albeit still friendly bacteria in your intestines. At the
very most, take acidophilus supplements either in between antibiotic doses or after you have
completely finished your prescription.
7. Look back at why you became ill to begin with. I once suffered from strep throat after indulging in
half a box of chocolates. That should have come as no surprise. Who wouldn’t be crippled by that
amount of garbage? More than likely, you have your own experience regarding similar binges. My
point is, diet plays at least as much a role as actual exposure to germs as to whether we get sick —
when we are healthy and eating correctly, our bodies are amazingly resistant to infection.
One, last note: Please ignore advertisements that recommend guzzling orange juice for the vitamin C it
contains. A big dose of sugar is what you’d actually be getting. I have heard more than a few patients note
that once they felt they were coming down with something, they immediately began downing glass after
glass of orange juice, only to get even sicker. They concluded that they must not have caught the illness in
time, which couldn’t have been any further from the truth.
The truth is, they simply fueled the fire of their infections with lots of sugar, all because they trusted a
corporation’s advertisement to educate them about proper healing strategies. If you want that much vitamin
C, you will be perfectly fine taking it in the 1,000 mg pill form a few times a day. As far as fluid
requirements are concerned, your body is 70 percent water — and that is exactly what it needs!

Surgery Encyclopedia: Antibiotics

Definition

Antibiotics may be informally defined as the subgroup of anti-infectives derived from bacterial sources and used to treat bacterial infections.

Purpose

Antibiotics are used for treatment or prevention of bacterial infection. Other classes of drugs, most notably the sulfonamides, may be effective antibacterials. Similarly, some antibiotics may have secondary uses, such as the use of demeclocycline (Declomycin, a tetracycline derivative) to treat the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone (SIADH) secretion. Other antibiotics may be useful in treating protozoal infections.

Description

Although there are several classification schemes for antibiotics, based on bacterial spectrum (broad versus narrow), route of administration (injectable versus oral versus topical), or type of activity (bactericidal versus bacteriostatic), the most useful is based on chemical structure. Antibiotics within a structural class will generally show similar patterns of effectiveness, toxicity, and allergic potential.

Penicillins

The penicillins are the oldest class of antibiotics and have a common chemical structure that they share with the cephalosporins. The two groups are classed as the beta-lactam antibiotics, and are generally bacteriocidal—that is, they kill bacteria rather than inhibit growth. The penicillins can be further subdivided. The natural penicillins are based on the original penicillin G structure; penicillinase-resistant penicillins, notably methicillin and oxacillin, are active even in the presence of the bacterial enzyme that inactivates most natural penicillins. Aminopenicillins such as ampicillin and amoxicillin have an extended spectrum of action compared with the natural penicillins; extended spectrum penicillins are effective against a wider range of bacteria. These generally include coverage for Pseudomonas aeruginosa and may provide the penicillin in combination with a penicillinase inhibitor.

Cephalosporins

Cephalosporins and the closely related cephamycins and carbapenems, like the penicillins, contain a beta-lactam chemical structure. Consequently, there are patterns of cross-resistance and cross-allergenicity among the drugs in these classes. The "cepha" drugs are among the most diverse classes of antibiotics, and are themselves subgrouped into first, second, and third generations. Each generation has a broader spectrum of activity than the one before. In addition, cefoxitin (Mefoxin), a cephamycin, is highly active against anaerobic bacteria, which makes it useful in prevention and treatment of infections of the intestines. The third generation drugs, cefotaxime, ceftizoxime, ceftriaxone, and others, cross the blood-brain barrier and may be used to treat meningitis and encephalitis. Cephalosporins are the usually preferred agents for prevention of infection during surgery.

Fluroquinolones

The fluroquinolones are synthetic antibacterial agents, and are not derived from bacteria. They are included here because they can be readily interchanged with traditional antibiotics. An earlier, related class of antibacterial agents, the quinolones, were not well absorbed, and could be used only to treat urinary tract infections. The fluroquinolones, which are based on the older group, are broad-spectrum bactericidal drugs that are chemically unrelated to the penicillins or the cephalosporins. They are well distributed into bone tissue, and so well absorbed that in general they are as effective by the oral route as by intravenous infusion.

Tetracyclines

Tetracyclines got their name because they share a chemical structure having four rings. They are derived from a species of Streptomyces bacteria. Broad-spectrum bacteriostatic agents, the tetracyclines may be effective against a wide variety of microorganisms, including rickettsia and amebic parasites.

Macrolides

The macrolide antibiotics are derived from Streptomyces bacteria, and got their name because they all have a macrocyclic lactone chemical structure. Erythromycin, the prototype of this class, has a spectrum and use similar to penicillin. Newer members of the group, azithromycin and clarithyromycin, are particularly useful for their high level of lung penetration. Clarithromycin has been widely used to treat Helicobacter pylori infections, the cause of stomach ulcers. For people who are allergic to penicillin, erythromycin is a valuable alternative. But, unlike penicillin, erythromycin can be very irritating

Different antibiotics destroy bacteria in different ways. Some short-circuit the processes by which bacteria receive energy. Others disturb the structure of the bacterial cell wall, as shown in the illustration above. Still others interfere with the production of essential proteins. (Illustration by Electronic Illustrators Group.)

Different antibiotics destroy bacteria in different ways. Some short-circuit the processes by which bacteria receive energy. Others disturb the structure of the bacterial cell wall, as shown in the illustration above. Still others interfere with the production of essential proteins. (Illustration by Electronic Illustrators Group.)

both to the stomach when given by mouth, or to veins when given by injection.

Other Classes

Other classes of antibiotics include the aminoglycosides, which are particularly useful for their effectiveness in treating Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections, and the lincosamindes, clindamycin and lincomycin, which are highly active against anaerobic pathogens. In addition, other individual drugs are available that may have utility in specific infections.

Recommended Dosage

Dosage varies with drug, route of administration, pathogen, site of infection, and severity. Additional considerations include renal (kidney) function, age of patient, and other factors. Patients should consult manufac turers' recommendations or ask their doctors.

Side Effects

All antibiotics cause risk of overgrowth by non-susceptible bacteria. Manufacturers list other major hazards by class; however, the health care provider should review each drug individually to assess the degree of risk. Generally, breastfeeding is not recommended while taking antibiotics because of risk of alteration to infant's intestinal flora, and risk of masking infection in the infant. Excessive or inappropriate use may promote growth of resistant pathogens.

* Penicillins. Hypersensitivity may be common, and cross allergenicity with cephalosporins has been reported. Penicillins are classed as category B during pregnancy.
* Cephalosporins. Several cephalosporins and related compounds have been associated with seizures. Cefmetazole, cefoperazone, cefotetan and ceftriaxone may be associated with a fall in prothrombin activity and coagulation abnormalities. Pseudomembranous colitis (inflammation of the colon) has been reported with cephalosporins and other broad spectrum antibiotics. Some drugs in this class may cause renal toxicity. Pregnancy category B.
* Fluoroquinolones. Lomefloxacin has been associated with increased photosensitivity. All drugs in this class have been associated with convulsions. Pregnancy category C.
* Tetracyclines. Demeclocycline may cause increased photosensitivity. Minocycline may cause dizziness. Children under the age of eight should not use tetracyclines, and specifically during periods of tooth development. Oral tetracyclines bind to anions such as calcium and iron. Although doxycycline and minocycline may be taken with meals, patients are advised to take other tetracycline antibiotics on an empty stomach, and not to take the drugs with milk or other calcium-rich foods. Expired tetracycline should never be administered. Pregnancy category D; use during pregnancy may cause alterations in bone development.
* Macrolides. Erythromycin may aggravate the weakness of patients with myasthenia gravis. Azithromycin has, rarely, been associated with allergic reactions, including angioedema, anaphylaxis, and dermatologic reactions, including Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis. Oral erythromycin may be highly irritating to the stomach and may cause severe phlebitis (inflammation of the vein) when given by injection. These drugs should be used with caution in patients with liver dysfunction. Pregnancy category B: Azithromycin, erythromycin. Pregnancy category C: Clarithromycin, dirithromycin, troleandomycin.
* Aminoglycosides. This class of drugs causes kidney and hearing problems. These problems can occur even with normal doses. Dosing should be based on renal function, with periodic testing of both kidney function and hearing. Pregnancy category D.

Interactions

Use of all antibiotics may temporarily reduce the effectiveness of birth control pills; alternative birth control methods should be used while taking these medications. Antacids should be avoided while on tetracyclines as the calcium can impair absorption of this antibiotic class. For this reason, tetracyclines should not be taken just before or after consuming foods rich in calcium or iron. Consult specialized references for additional interactions to specific antibiotics.

Recommended Usage

To minimize risk of adverse reactions and development of resistant strains of bacteria, antibiotics should be restricted to use in cases where there is either known or a reasonable presumption of bacterial infection. The use of antibiotics in viral infections is to be avoided. Avoid use of fluroquinolones for trivial infections.

In severe infections, presumptive therapy with a broad-spectrum antibiotic such as a third generation cephalosporin may be appropriate. Treatment should be changed to a narrow spectrum agent as soon as the pathogen has been identified. After 48 hours of treatment, if there is clinical improvement, an oral antibiotic should be considered.

When the pathogen is known or suspected to be Pseudomonas, a suitable beta-lactam drug is often prescribed in combination with an aminoglycoside. A single agent cannot be relied upon for treatment of Pseudomonas. When the patient has renal insufficiency, azactam should be considered in place of the aminoglycoside.

In treatment of children with antibiotic suspensions, caregivers should be instructed in use of oral syringes or measuring teaspoons. Household teaspoons are not standardized and will give unreliable doses.

Resources

Periodicals

Moellering, R. C., Jr. "Linezolid." Summaries for Patients. Annals of Internal Medicine 138 (January 21, 2003): I-44.

Other

Alliance for the Prudent Use of Antibiotics. Consumer Information. http://www.tufts.edu/med/apua/Patients/patient.html.

"Using antibiotics sensibly." MayoClinic.com. February 6, 2002 [cited June 25, 2003]. http://www.mayoclinic.com/invoke.cfm?id=FL00075.

Medical Encyclopedia:
AIDS

More about AIDS:
Causes and symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Alternative treatment
Prognosis
Prevention
Resources

Definition

Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is an infectious disease caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). It was first recognized in the United States in 1981. AIDS is the advanced form of infection with the HIV virus, which may not cause recognizable disease for a long period after the initial exposure (latency). No vaccine is currently available to prevent HIV infection. At present, all forms of AIDS therapy are focused on improving the quality and length of life for AIDS patients by slowing or halting the replication of the virus and treating or preventing infections and cancers that take advantage of a person's weakened immune system.

Description

AIDS is considered one of the most devastating public health problems in recent history. In June 2000, the Centers
Risk of acquiring HIV infection by entry site
Entry site Risk virus reaches entry site Risk virus enters Risk inoculated
Conjuntiva Moderate Moderate Very low
Oral mucosa Moderate Moderate Low
Nasal mucosa Low Low Very low
Lower respiratory Very low Very low Very low
Anus Very high Very high Very high
Skin, intact Very low Very low Very low
Skin, broken Low High High
Sexual:
Vagina Low High High
Penis Low Low High
Ulcers (STD) Medium Low Very high
Blood:
Products High High Low
Shared needles High High High
Accidental needle High Very High Low
Traumatic wound Modest High High
Perinatal High High High

for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported that 120,223 (includes only those cases in areas that have confidential HIV reporting) in the United States are HIV-positive, and 311,701 are living with AIDS (includes only those cases where vital status is known). Of these patients, 44% are gay or bisexual men, 20% are heterosexual intravenous drug users, and 17% are women. In addition, approximately 1,000-2,000 children are born each year with HIV infection. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 33 million adults and 1.3 million children worldwide were living with HIV/AIDS as of 1999 with 5.4 million being newly infected that year. Most of these cases are in the developing countries of Asia and Africa.
Risk factors

AIDS can be transmitted in several ways. The risk factors for HIV transmission vary according to category:

* Sexual contact. Persons at greatest risk are those who do not practice safe sex, those who are not monogamous, those who participate in anal intercourse, and those who have sex with a partner with symptoms of advanced HIV infection and/or other sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). In the United States and Europe, most cases of sexually transmitted HIV infection have resulted from homosexual contact, whereas in Africa, the disease is spread primarily through sexual intercourse among heterosexuals.
* Transmission in pregnancy. High-risk mothers include women married to bisexual men or men who have an abnormal blood condition called hemophilia and require blood transfusions, intravenous drug users, and women living in neighborhoods with a high rate of HIV infection among heterosexuals. The chances of transmitting the disease to the child are higher in women in advanced stages of the disease. Breast feeding increases the risk of transmission by 10-20%. The use of zidovudine (AZT) during pregnancy, however, can decrease the risk of transmission to the baby.
* Exposure to contaminated blood or blood products. With the introduction of blood product screening in the mid-1980s, the incidence of HIV transmission in blood transfusions has dropped to one in every 100,000 transfused. With respect to HIV transmission among drug abusers, risk increases with the duration of using injections, the frequency of needle sharing, the number of persons who share a needle, and the number of AIDS cases in the local population.
* Needle sticks among health care professionals. Present studies indicate that the risk of HIV transmission by a needle stick is about one in 250. This rate can be decreased if the injured worker is given AZT, an anti-retroviral medication, in combination with other medication.

HIV is not transmitted by handshakes or other casual non-sexual contact, coughing or sneezing, or by blood-sucking insects such as mosquitoes.
AIDS in women

AIDS in women is a serious public health concern. Women exposed to HIV infection through heterosexual contact are the most rapidly growing risk group in the United States population. The percentage of AIDS cases diagnosed in women has risen from 7% in 1985 to 23% in 1999. Women diagnosed with AIDS may not live as long as men, although the reasons for this finding are unclear.
AIDS in children

Since AIDS can be transmitted from an infected mother to the child during pregnancy, during the birth process, or through breast milk, all infants born to HIV-positive mothers are a high-risk group. As of 2000, it was estimated that 87% of HIV-positive women are of childbearing age; 41% of them are drug abusers. Between 15-30% of children born to HIV-positive women will be infected with the virus.

AIDS is one of the 10 leading causes of death in children between one and four years of age. The interval between exposure to HIV and the development of AIDS is shorter in children than in adults. Infants infected with HIV have a 20-30% chance of developing AIDS within a year and dying before age three. In the remainder, AIDS progresses more slowly; the average child patient survives to seven years of age. Some survive into early adolescence.

— Rebecca J. Frey

Great opportunity available immediately with the Conservation and Land Management Internship Program, sponsored jointly by the Chicago Botanic Garden, the Bureau of Land Management and the National Park Service.

This is an excellent opportunity to sharpen and increase vegetation identification and survey/ monitoring skills. Basic knowledge of ArcGis would be helpful. Intern will use ArcMap 9.

Major duties will be the collection of seeds for the Seeds-of-Success program within the BLM, Rawlins Field Office (with limited collections around Wyoming).

The successful candidate will have the ability to identify native plants/weeds in sagebrush steppe, mountain shrub and Salt desert communities of the Wyoming basin and intermountain west; knowledge of vegetation sampling techniques; skill in plant collection and pressing; ability to key unknown plants using dichotomous keys and herbarium samples; ability to occasionally work independently in remote places and harsh environments; ability to drive off-road 4X4 vehicles with standard transmissions; ability to navigate using map/orientation skills; skill in using GPS and GIS.

This is a 5-10 month internship, depending upon the needs of the field office. Position will remain open until filled. Salary $750.00 every two weeks.

For further program information or to apply, please visit our website:
http://www.chicagobotanic.org/research/training/clm_internship
--

Research Fellow position in Land Surface/Ecosystem Modeling: The individual will participate in interdisciplinary research of coupled natural and human systems at various scales from local to regional to continental to global. The individual will work closely with a team of scientist to develop and implement an integrated regional Earth system model that couples models of terrestrial ecosystems, hydrology, land use/land cover change and global economy. This individual will be also requested to participate in the development of research proposals. For questions regarding the nature of this job summary, please contact Dr. Hanqin Tian at e-mail: tianhan@auburn.edu .

Qualifications: A Ph.D. degree from an accredited institution in Climate/Atmospheric Science, Ecosystem Ecology, Ecohydrology or Environmental sciences or related field and 2 years research experience in terrestrial ecosystem/land surface/regional climate modeling. Employer will consider advanced degrees in lieu of experience. A background in land-climate interactions, carbon and water cycle studies, programming in Fortran, C or C++; written and interpersonal communication skills; record of research publications in refereed journals of high quality; and a demonstrated ability to function well within multidisciplinary teams are required. Postdoctoral experience in relevant fields is desired.

Requisition No.22691.
Review Date: 06-27-2008

The "Review Date" indicates the date after which the hiring department will begin reviewing applications of qualified candidates. Salary will be commensurate with education and experience.

Refer to the above Requisition # and apply on-line at:
www.auemployment.com

on any computer with Internet access. If you need any assistance, contact Auburn University's Department of Human Resources at (334) 844-4145 or your local state employment service office. Internet Access is also available through your public library.

ANTICIPATED START DATE: July 23, 2008
SALARY: Commensurate with education and experience. Continued employment contingent upon federal funding

REQUIRED QUALIFICATIONS: A Bachelor's degree in field of research applicable to the position and two years of related experience.

PREFERRED QUALIFICATIONS: The successful applicant will have a keen interest in plants coupled with field experience in plant identification and the use of dichotomous keys. Other preferred qualifications include knowledge of Chihuahuan Desert flora and fauna, practical experience with electrical and mechanical maintenance of climatological and hydrological instruments, and skill in the use of hand and power tools.

The successful candidate will be flexible, able to enjoy working in the field under high heat, sun, and wind exposure (as this is primarily a desert field position), work reliably both independently and as part of a team, establish and maintain effective working relationships with associates and principle investigators, be comfortable working safely with moderately hazardous materials, make sound judgments relative to analytical processes, recognize the extreme accuracy and consistency essential to long term research, assemble and record accurate data, follow detailed oral and/or written instructions exactly, communicate well both verbally and in writing, and have some supervisory skills. Acute attention to small details, enthusiasm, and the ability to get along well with co-workers, supervisors, and principle investigators are essential.

ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS: Driver's license.

RESPONSIBILITIES: Work is based out of New Mexico State University in Las Cruces, NM. Individual will participate in the on-going and multi-disciplinary Jornada Basin Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER) program on desertification in the Chihuahuan Desert. Research disciplines include plant ecology (~35%), aeolian studies (~15%), hydrology (~10%), animal ecology (~10%), soils (~9%), and climatology (~5%). Approximately 85% of the time will be spent outdoors collecting data, with the remaining 15% of the time spent in the lab processing samples, cleaning equipment, and checking data. Although the position is usually 40 hours a week, additional hours will occasionally be required both during the week and on weekends.

Specific field responsibilities include extensive plant identification and measurements; soil moisture measurements using a neutron probe; extensive collection of hydrology data and frequent maintenance of hydrological equipment; maintenance of field instruments, equipment, and infrastructure; handling and identification of small mammals; and repeat photography. The position will entail manual labor such as routine carrying of heavy instruments in the field for extended periods, installation and maintenance of experimental study infrastructure, and could include tasks like shrub removal, trenching, and soil coring. The individual will work with a wide variety of taxa and will be required to learn identification of all flora (~350 spp.) and selected fauna found in the research area.

General responsibilities include collecting and recording moderately complex data in both field and laboratory environments in accordance with established protocols, limited data entry, maintaining organizational and historical data for each study, aiding principle investigators with data collection and experimental design (assisting with design, testing, and/or modification of experimental equipment as well as installation of experimental apparatus).

BENEFITS: Group medical and hospital insurance, group life insurance, state education retirement, worker's compensation, annual leave, sick leave, and unemployment compensation.

Review of APPLICATIONS: Review of applications will begin July 9, 2008 and continue until filled. Submit letter of interest, resume or CV, copy of unofficial transcripts, and 3 references with contact information. Electronic submissions must be in MS WORD, Rich Text Format (RTF), or PDF. Other formats will not be accepted.

REPLY TO: John P. Anderson, Jornada LTER Site Manager
USDA-ARS Jornada Experimental Range Voice: 505-646-5818
P.O. Box 30003 Fax: 505-646-5889
MSC 3JER New Mexico State University Email: janderso@jornada.nmsu.edu
Las Cruces, NM 88003-0001 [2995 Knox Street, Suite 200 for FedEx, etc.]

The Sierra Nevada Network Inventory and Monitoring Program seeks an Ecologist (GS-0408) to develop a long-term ecological monitoring program for 4 park units. This is a permanent, subject-to-furlough, GS-11 position (approx. $54,494 to $70,843) and is open to applicants both with and without federal status. Applicants must be U.S. citizens.

Location: Yosemite National Park (El Portal, CA) or Sequoia National Park (Three Rivers, California). The Sierra Nevada parks offer outstanding outdoor recreational opportunities, spectacular scenery, and diverse natural and cultural resources.

Duties: The Ecologist will assist in developing and implementing a long- term monitoring program that evaluates status and trends in selected Vital Signs for the network (key ecosystem components and processes). The Ecologist is responsible for ensuring the scientific rigor and statistical soundness of monitoring protocols that focus on biological indicators. The incumbent works within or leads teams (consisting of NPS resource professionals, agency and academic researchers, and other internal or external cooperators) in the development of monitoring protocols. The incumbent visits field sites to implement and supervise data collection, conducts statistical data analysis using appropriate techniques and tools, interprets and synthesizes results, and communicates the significance of findings through presentations, reports, and publications. The incumbent also supports administration of the program through project coordination, writing and overseeing contracts and agreements, developing work plans, schedules, and cost estimates, and tracking budgets. The position will involve a combination of office work, field time, and travel to the parks. A strong background in plant ecology (with an emphasis on wetlands, forest, and/or landscape ecology) in montane environments is desirable.

The job is advertised at: http://jobsearch.usajobs.gov/ and is open from June 23 – July 14, 2008. The announcement number is SEKI-08-46EE.

See http://science.nature.nps.gov/im/units/SIEN/index.cfm for more information on the Sierra Nevada Network Inventory & Monitoring program.

For more information on this position, please contact Linda Mutch (linda_mutch@nps.gov or 559-565-3174

Term: Two years beginning Sept. 1, 2008 (approximately)

Functions
Funded by the National Science Foundation, the Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory will be installing a Distributed Environmental Sensor Network. Answering to a project manager, the technician will be responsible for: 1. assisting with final decisions on hardware purchases; 2. assisting with finalizing site locations; 3. installing five permanent weather stations along an elevational gradient; 4. deployment of additional sensor devices, including but not limited to a portable weather station, a digital camera, and TruTrak underwater sensors; 5. developing a long-term maintenance plan for the sensors; 6. assisting with communication solutions for the sensors; 7. working with a database engineer to implement database solutions for the information generated by the sensors. Basic Qualifications The technician should have experience working with environmental sensors. Experience with Campbell weather stations is highly desired. The technician will ideally have experience working in uncomfortable and extreme conditions in montane environments.

Benefits
$36,000-$45,000 DOE, 10% retirement

About Us
A 501c(3) organization the Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory advances the scientific understanding of nature that promotes informed stewardship of the Earth. The Lab provides scientists and students access to diverse habitats, research and education infrastructure, a collaborative and internationally-recognized scientific community, and a broad base of knowledge about the ecology of mountain environments. A deeply understood place and supportive research community make it ideal for training the next generation of field scientists.

Activities are run out of Gothic, CO during summer months. During the winter the technician will work out of Crested Butte, CO.

For more information, visit <http://www.rmbl.org/>www.rmbl.org.

Applications
Please submit applications by email to Dan Jones at data@rmbl.org>data@rmbl.org. Applications should include a cover letter summarizing relevant job history and experience working in extreme conditions, two letters of recommendation, and a resume.

Location: Tucson, AZ

About The Wildlife Society:

The Wildlife Society (www.wildlife.org) is an international, membership organization dedicated to excellence in wildlife stewardship through science and education. Since 1937, TWS has worked to advance the science and practice of wildlife management and conservation, promote continuing education of wildlife professionals, and advocate for science-based wildlife policy. These activities further the Society's mission to represent and serve wildlife professionals – the scientists, technicians, and practitioners actively working to manage, conserve, protect, and study wildlife and their habitats worldwide. The Wildlife Society currently has nearly 8,000 members in the U.S., Canada, and worldwide.

General Qualifications:

The Wildlife Society (TWS) seeks an individual with knowledge and/or training in the wildlife profession and with exceptional communication and interpersonal skills that can serve as an effective planner, facilitator and ambassador for a new Wildlife Phenology Program. This is a temporary two-year position, which has the possibility of transforming into a longer-term position, depending on the program's success.

Duties and Responsibilities:

The WPP Coordinator, under the direct supervision of the TWS Executive Director/CEO, provides leadership and management oversight for a new Wildlife Phenology Program being developed by TWS in partnership with the USA-National Phenology Network (NPN). The USA-NPN (<http://www.usanpn.org/>www.usanpn.org) is a relatively new partnership among NGOs, academia, citizen volunteers, federal agencies, and other organizations. The goal and mission of the USA-NPN is to establish a nationwide network of phenological observations of plants and animals to understand better how natural ecological systems respond to changing environments through changes in phenology, and to aid the development and implementation of facilities and tools required for human adaptation to future climate conditions. This effort employs the observational skills of scientists, managers, the public and other stakeholders to document dynamics aspects of plant and animal biology that are affected by seasonal changes, such as foliage emergence, fruit production, migration and reproduction. Such long-term monitoring studies have taken on new importance as our nation and the world begin to track and attempt to adapt to the pervasive impacts of global climate change.

Responsibilities include:

· Scope, develop and implement a wildlife phenology program to parallel and interface the plant phenology program of the USA-NPN.

· Develop and facilitate workshops and working groups consisting of scientists, stakeholders and resource managers to identify and justify wildlife species (including insect, birds, amphibians, mammals, reptiles, fishes) broadly distributed across the US that may serve as important phenological indicators of environmental change, and that can be monitored within the context of a national phenology network.

· Build partnerships and develop public interest in the program.

· Identify projects that can be completed readily to demonstrate use of phenology end products and demonstrate early successes.

· Assist in the development of a schema for linking plant and animal phenology data.

· Develop data management/database requirements for the animal phenology program, and coordinate with the USA-NPN working group for cyber-infrastructure to develop and implement tools to input, download and visualize data.

· Identify and develop opportunities for education, outreach and citizen science involvement in the study and understanding of animal phenology.

· Seek possible sources of future support for the WPP in collaboration with USA-NPN and TWS.

Qualifications:

Excellent communication skills required, both verbal and written. Ability to communicate effectively with both scientists and non-scientists critical. Broad understanding of effects of environmental variation or climate change on natural ecological systems; solid understanding of processes controlling animal populations and communities; understanding of plant-animal interactions; experience with animal or plant phenology preferred (e.g., empirical or modeling research on contemporary or legacy datasets); experience with meeting facilitation preferred. The emphasis of this program is on terrestrial systems, but some knowledge of aquatic/marine systems would also be helpful.

Education: Master's or doctoral degree in wildlife biology or ecology, or at least 4 years equivalent experience in wildlife management, ecology or related disciplines.

Salary: High 40's-low 50's, depending on educational background and experience.

Benefits: Package includes health insurance, annual and sick leave, and paid holidays.

Application process: Qualified candidates should submit a resume and letter of interest to:

Janine (Yanin) Walker
yanin@wildlife.org>yanin@wildlife.org (email preferred)
Operations Manager
The Wildlife Society
5410 Grosvenor Lane
Bethesda, MD 20814

Application deadline: 15 July 2008
Anticipated starting date: 1 August 2008

Ecology of Lake Sturgeon in the Oswego Drainage, New York

A one-year research assistantship and tuition scholarship is available in the Department of Environmental and Forest Biology, SUNY-ESF, Syracuse, New York. Availability of a an additional 1-year Teaching Assistantship is likely, depending on the qualifications of the successful applicant.

Lake sturgeon are in decline throughout the Great Lakes and are protected in most states in the region. In New York, lake sturgeon populations have been bolstered or reintroduced through hatchery release. This research involves a collaboration between SUNY-ESF, USGS-Cortland, and the NYSDEC, focused on evaluating the ecology and population dynamics of lake sturgeon in the Oswego River drainage of central New York. The MS-funded portion will focus on multiple aspects of lake sturgeon habitat use and availability and fish community composition, and will include considerable opportunity for interaction with state and federal agencies. The findings of this research will provide important direction to management agencies for the recovery of the declining lake sturgeon.

Requirements: Training and experience in fisheries and/or aquatic ecology and conservation biology are preferred. Experience in formulating and executing independent research, at any level, is preferred. Additional desired skills include experience with GIS, practical boating skills.

Inquiries are welcome. Starting date of January 1, 2009 is preferred. Interested candidates should send a short statement of interest, CV with the names and contact information of two references, and copies of transcripts, GPA, and GRE scores to:

Dr. Kathleen E. McGrath
Department of Environmental & Forest Biology
SUNY-ESF, 304 Illick Hall
1 Forestry Drive, Syracuse, NY 13210
(315) 470-4814
http://www.esf.edu/EFB/faculty/mcgrath.htm

We seek a highly motivated Research Assistant to work under the supervision of Dr. Patrick Bohlen at the MacArthur Agro-ecology Research Center a Division of Archbold Biological Station and is located at a 10,500-acre commercial cattle ranch. MAERC is dedicated to long-term ecological research, education, and environmental stewardship on a large- scale, working cattle ranch. Our program focuses on efforts to protect and restore the vast open landscapes critical to the Northern Everglades Ecosystem, and is part of the global effort to sustain working farms and ranches while maintaining their environmental values. Research projects at MAERC focus on: water quality and management, wetland ecology and restoration, effects of fire and grazing on grassland and wetland ecosystems, and the environmental impacts of cattle ranching.

The Research Assistant III will be expected to:
- Collect water samples and analyze nutrient concentration in the lab.
- Organize field and laboratory operations.
- Maintain meterological and hydrologic instrumentation including weather stations, groundwater wells and flow monitoring stations.
- Manage, organize and analyze incoming data on multiple projects.
- Perform occasional literature reviews.
- Help with tours, special events and other outreach activities as necessary.
- Assist with field and lab work on other ecological research projects as necessary.

The successful candidate should:
- Have a B.S or M.S. (preferred) in environment science, agricultural or biological engineering, ecology, water resources or a related field.
- Have field and lab experience relevant to the position.
- Have or be willing to develop technical competence with field instrumentation, dataloggers and sensors used in environmental monitoring and research.
- Have experience working with spreadsheets and databases.
- Be highly motivated with a strong work ethic.
- Have excellent written and verbal communication skills.
- Be capable of strenuous fieldwork under hot, humid subtropical conditions.
- Be willing to live in a remote rural location.
- Be a positive, solutions-oriented person who works well independently and with others.

This is a permanent, full time position with an excellent benefits package, with a minimum salary of $26,250. The position is available starting August 1, 2008.Applicants should send 1) a letter of interest, 2) a resume with related work experience and education, and 3) names, phone numbers and e-mail addresses for three references to: Dr. Patrick Bohlen at pbohlen@archbold-station.org, or MacArthur Agro-ecology Research Center, 300 Buck Island Ranch Rd., Lake Placid, FL, 33852. Review of applications will begin July 15, and the position will remain open until filled. Contact Dr. Bohlen at (863) 699-0242 or (863) 414-5145 (cell). Please visit our website www.maerc.org/index.html for further information.

Colorado State University and Dr. Maria Fernandez-Gimenez seek a research assistant for summer rangeland ecology fieldwork in northwestern Colorado. The project involves modeling the effects of different rangeland management practices, natural disturbances, and environmental stresses on plant community dynamics (developing state-and-transition models). This research assistant position is full time, approximately July 5 to July 26 with possible extension into August. Our work schedule is eight 10-hour days (Monday through Monday) followed by six days off. Crew is based out of Fort Collins but fieldwork will take place near Hayden in northwestern Colorado. Lodging (camping and/or rooms in a local ranch) and transportation to and from field sites will be provided during work trips. Research assistants will receive a weekly stipend of $480 plus per diem ($20/day for days in the field).

Responsibilities

- Work as part of a team of 4 to collect field and lab data on plant communities and soils in northwestern Colorado sagebrush steppe.
- Collect and manage soil and plant community data, including:
- plant identification
- clipping and weighing plant biomass samples
- gathering soil samples
- some lab work
- accurate data entry using PDA's, computers, and paper
- Maintain positive group dynamic while living and working with other crew members for long periods in remote areas.
- Communicate project goals with members of the local community and respect private property.

Qualifications

- Demonstrated interest in plant ecology, rangeland management or ecological restoration.
- Interest in using taxonomic keys to identify plants, especially in Colorado and Wyoming sagebrush steppe.
- Good physical condition. This includes ability to hike distances of up to 2 miles over rough terrain carrying equipment, in hot or inclement weather, while maintaining group safety and high data quality standards.
- Good driving record. Four wheel drive experience a plus.
- Ability to work individually and as part of a team.
- Positive attitude.

For more information, email Emily Kachergis at emily.kachergis@gmail.com. To apply, send resume, cover letter and contact information for three references to by June 30. Interviews will start immediately.
--

Requisition # 7232BR
Department Research- Crop Product Development
City Bandar Lampung
Country Indonesia
Position Type Full-Time Regular
Hiring Manager Title Research Scientist - Rice

Job Description
Conduct research trials in both the rainy and dry seasons and will also provide research support to local sales teams in the regions where the trials are located.

Duties/Responsibilities
1. Responsible for conducting research trials to include organizing cooperators, planting, in season crop management, and harvest.
2. Record data as needed to evaluate and characterize hybrids and assist with Data preparation for analysis.
3. Provide research support to local sales teams in the areas where trails are conducted.
4. Maintain field supplies, coordinate purchases and payments, supervise Temporary employees

Educational Qualifications Desired BS degree in agriculture

Competencies and Experience Desired Minimum 3 years experience in crop testing. (Experience with rice testing preferred.)

Management, interpersonal and communication skills are important. (Experience in sales would be helpful)

Computer literate – familiar with standard computer programs like Excel, Word etc.

Proficient in English

APPLY: http://tinyurl.com/5clsww

Stochastic dynamical models of viral infection

An opportunity exists to work, as a Postdoctoral Research Fellow, on a project funded by an Australian Research Council Discovery grant. A motivated candidate with a PhD is required to undertake original research modelling the stochastic dynamics and evolutionary genetics of virus populations.

The research will take place jointly at Swinburne University of Technology and Melbourne University in Melbourne, Australia, in a new theoretical research group. These universities have a broad program of research, ranging from astrophysics to bioinformatics research, in conjunction with strong computational resources and a wide range of biological sciences institutions in Victoria.

This project will study theoretical population genetics and population dynamics from a viewpoint of modeling statistics and fluctuations. The project has a computational and quantitative focus, aided by close cooperation with experts in computational evolutionary biology at the University of Auckland. The candidate will be expected to travel to New Zealand to help the cooperative aspect of the research program.

The successful candidate will focus on the highly relevant case of modeling viral evolution in a single infected host. Theoretical methods will include Monte-Carlo and stochastic computational and analytic
techniques employing the Poisson representation as well as other methods. Familiarity with high-level computer languages would be useful, as would a knowledge of modern population genetics and the use of stochastic differential and Fokker-Planck equations.

You should possess a PhD in one of the following areas: population genetics, evolutionary biology, mathematics/mathematical biology, bioinformatics/computational biology, or statistical and computational physics with a willingness to learn the genetics background. The successful candidate should also have authored articles in international peer-reviewed journals.

This is a fixed term (two year), full-time appointment at Academic Level A/B, depending on qualifications and experience.

Applications close on June 1st, 2008.

Contact drummond@physics.uq.edu.au or alexei@cs.auckland.ac.nz

Peter D Drummond
Professor of Theoretical Physics,
ARC Professorial Fellow,
Director of the UQ node of the ARC Centre
of Excellence for Quantum-Atom Optics
University of Queensland
Australia

Alexei Drummond
Senior Lecturer in Bioinformatics
Department of Computer Science
University of Auckland
New Zealand

We are looking for a bioinformatician to work in the Bioinformatics Core of the Telethon Institute of Genetics and Medicine (TIGEM) in Naples.

Currently, the Bioinformatics Core develops and applies methods for statistical data mining, exploratory data analysis, and in general bioinformatics tools, to solve research problems of the different research groups at TIGEM.

The Core also collaborates with research groups in specific research projects for the development of novel bioinformatics and computational biology tools.

As a member of the Bioinformatics Core team, you will mainly be responsible for sequence analysis and databases development and maintenance.

Essential requirements are: programming skills in Perl and SQL/mySQL. Knowledge of genome databases (Ensembl, UCSC Genome Browser). Knowledge of molecular biology.

Preferential requiremenets are: experience in systems administration, programming skills in Java and Matlab; knowledge of probability and statistics; knowledge of the English language.

The position is for one year, renewable, starting in Semptember 2008.

Salary will be assigned based on experience, according to the TIGEM salary system.

Deadline for applications is 15 June 2008.

Please include a full CV, a motivitation letter, and 2-3 references, and send them Diego di Bernardo (dibernardo@tigem.it) and Luisa Cutillo (cutillo@tigem.it). These documents can be sent also in Italian. For more information please write to cutillo@tigem.it.

For further information please visit: http://www.tigem.it and http://bioinformatics.tigem.it

COMPANY DESCRIPTION:

IMMUNE TARGETING SYSTEMS (ITS) LTD., based in the London BioScience Innovation Centre, is a life science company developing synthetic vaccines for mutating viruses. Our lead universal influenza vaccine is designed to target all potential seasonal and pandemic influenza-A strains. The Company is also developing vaccines for HIV/AIDS and Hepatitis C. These viruses share a number of common features which present major challenges to conventional vaccine designers: they exist in many genetically diverse strains, have a tendency to continually mutate and cause human disease which can be prevented by generating appropriate cellular immune responses. The combination of our unique bioinformatics platform to identify appropriate vaccine antigens and a proprietary peptide-antigen delivery vehicle renders a powerful and novel technology for the prevention and treatment of diseases.
You will work in a state-of-the-art working environment and have the satisfaction of making a major contribution to improving global healthcare provision. The desire to work hard, meet strict deadlines, learn quickly, take pride in quality of work and contribute to the development of our company is essential. The company offers a competitive remuneration package including individual and company performance related benefits.

POSITION: CELLULAR & MOLECULAR IMMUNOLOGIST:

Applications are invited from candidates with post-doctoral experience in in-vivo/ex-vivo immunological T-cell assays including ELISPOT, in-vivo / ex-vivo cytotoxicity assays, cytokine assays (ELISA, multiplex) and flow cytometry (Intracellular cytokine measurements and tetramer staining).
Further desired attributes include; prior experience in the field of vaccine development, in particular peptide-based vaccines. A good understanding and desire to develop further, T-cell epitope prediction tools (bioinformatics & HLA binding assays). A Home Office Personal Licence holder. A strong publication record and the ability to co-write grant applications.

This is initially a 6 month contract, with the potential to be extended, and candidates must be available to start before 1st July 2008.

Interested candidates may contact Dr James Francis
To apply, submit your covering letter and curriculum vitae to: james.francis@its-innovation.co.uk
Completed applications MUST be received by Monday, May 19th 12.00 pm. Early applications are strongly encouraged.

The MAX DELBRÜCK CENTER FOR MOLECULAR MEDICINE (MDC) BERLIN-BUCH, in particular Prof. Nikolaus Rajewsky, Head of the Division of Systems Biology, is inviting applications for a

Postdoctoral Researcher

(Systems Biology of gene-regulatory elements)

The MDC Berlin-Buch is a member of the Helmholtz Association of National Research Centers, supported by the Federal Government of Germany and the Land Berlin. It is a biomedical research institute dedicated to interdisciplinary research in the areas of (i) Cardiovascular and Metabolic diseases, (ii) Cancer, and (iii) Function and Dysfunction of Nervous System.

The successful candidate will conduct analyses of high-throughput sequencing data (Solexa, “454”, SOLID etc.) as well as algorithm development for microRNA Biology.

The applicant should hold a highly successful PhD in Computational Biology, Physics, Bioinformatics or similar with at least three letters of recommendation.

The position is for a period of min. one year and max. five years with an immediate starting date.

The position is funded according to the German TVöD-System.

Applications from women are particularly welcome.

For further information about the MDC Berlin-Buch please visit our web site (http://www.mdc-berlin.de). For enquiries about the position please contact Alexandra Tschernycheff (tschernycheff@mdc-berlin.de).

Applications should be sent by June 13, 2008, including a curriculum vitae, three letters of recommendation and other relevant material to:

Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine (MDC) Berlin-Buch
Alexandra Tschernycheff, Division of Systems Biology
POB 74 02 38, 13092 Berlin, Germany

The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute (WTSI) leads the world in genomic research, with an expanding scientific programme dedicated to understanding gene function in health & disease. The cornerstone of all studies in this field is the human genome reference sequence. Since the landmark publication of the draft human genome in 2001, the reference sequence has been subject to continuous and intensive improvement using standard approaches. However, it has become clear that there are regions within the genome still in need of attention and new methods have to be developed to deal with these quickly and efficiently.

The WTSI has joined forces with the NCBI, WUGSC and the EBI to form the Genome Reference Consortium (GRC) which is committed to analyse and correct these critical regions of the reference sequence to facilitate continued progress in improving human health. We are seeking for talented and dedicated people to join the GRC at the Sanger Institute.

The focus of your role will be carrying out computational analysis to identify loci in need of further review. This will involve analysis of a wide range of datasets including the copy number variation projects and the recently initiated 1000 genomes project. As part of this process, you will closely interact with the GRC partners and in-house teams focussed on sequence generation. You will contribute to the development and implementation of software solutions to analyse and visualise the relationships between different genomic datasets. Initially, the focus will be on the human genome, but will later extend to include the mouse genome.

The ideal person for this position should have a degree, preferably PhD, in the Life Sciences or Computational Sciences. Previous experience working in computational biology would be strongly advantageous. A good working knowledge of object oriented programming and relational databases in a UNIX/Linux environment is essential. Proficiency in Perl and web skills would be desirable. Since this role involves close interaction with other informatics as well as laboratory groups, strong communication skills are required.

The salary range for this position is £27,316 to £36,951 dependent on experience

We offer a comprehensive range of benefits including a final salary pension scheme and excellent on-site facilities. Further details can be found on our website.

To apply for this position please email your CV (including 2 referees) and current salary details, quoting reference number NAW1611 to: recruit@sanger.ac.uk.

Or post to: Human Resources, The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, CB10 1SA.

The closing date for applications is 30 May 2008
http://www.sanger.ac.uk

Sirna Therapeutics, Inc., a wholly-owned subsidiary of Merck & Co., Inc., is leading the industry in developing a new class of drugs based on RNAi—drugs that we believe will significantly improve human health. The scientific community considers RNA the breakthrough biological discovery of the decade with the potential to change how diseases are treated. With our unmatched chemistry and biology expertise, seasoned leadership and broad therapeutic pipeline, Sirna is demonstrating that short interfering RNA (siRNA) can be chemically optimized and efficiently delivered to create therapeutically relevant compounds with drug-like properties and clinical effect.

The Lead Discovery team within Merck’s San Francisco site develops siRNA molecules against a variety of gene targets for target validation and therapeutic development. We seek a Senior Bioinformatics Analyst to support this effort. As part of a focused team of scientists, the candidate will:

· Provide high quality bioinformatic analyses at both the single gene and genomic level to support siRNA and miRNA therapeutic development.

· Integrate biological, biochemical, chemical, genomic, and bioinformatic data to aid in understanding the contributions of these determinants to siRNA/miRNA in vivo efficacy.

· Coordinate bioinformatic analysis in a high data flow environment

· Collaborate with biochemists, chemists, and biologists to provide bioinformatics support for ongoing siRNA/miRNA drug discovery and development projects; in particular utilizing computational genomics approaches to generate biological insights that can applied to siRNA/miRNA drug discovery and development.

Qualifications · A Ph.D. in computational biology, bioinformatics, or related field, or equivalent experience.

· Broad exposure to different types of biological and bioinformatics methods and familiarity with laboratory methods in molecular biology are required.